Unit 4: Effective Writing across the Curriculum

Outcomes

• identify strategies for developing your students’ ability to compose written texts for academic purposes,

• introduce your students to the steps that need to be followed in writing a technical report, and

• organise visits (e.g., to the library or museum) and develop investigation techniques to guide your students in identifying sources of information.

Terminology

Essay:

A composition in prose, in which a writer discusses a topic, usually restricted in scope, or tries to persuade the reader to accept a particular point of view.

Report:

An account or statement describing in detail an event or situation, usually as the result of observation, inquiry, etc., such as a scientific report or a report on an academic event.

Note taking:

The process of writing down the important points from a lecture or a written text for future reference.

Case study

Asha Kalunde is an English Language teacher at Kijiweni Secondary School in a remote district of Kabaji. One day the head teacher showed her a clipping from a daily newspaper that invited students in JSS to participate in an essay competition. Ms Kalunde hoped she could inspire her students to participate, and when she informed them about it they were very excited. In fact, they wanted to select the topic and start writing right away. Ms Kalunde explained that writing a good essay needs preparation, so that the content can be communicated in the most effective way. She reminded them that the first step towards writing a winning essay was to collect information on the topic, and then brainstorming on how best to express the ideas selected. She also added that more steps were required before finalising the composition, such as editing it for grammar, vocabulary and style. She asked the class to brainstorm on where they could get information. The class identified different sources of information, including people, the library, websites, newspapers and textbooks.

Unfortunately, apart from the small room that the Kijiweni school had converted into a school library, there were no library facilities in the district. At the school they had electricity from solar energy, a computer and a printer, but they did not have Internet access. However, a mobile library visited the district every Wednesday. The class decided to work as a team to access various sources of information.

After some discussion they selected two topics for their essays. Then they divided themselves into groups. Each group was assigned the task of collecting information from different sources. Some had to identify and interview people whom they thought knew the topic well. Others visited the mobile library and borrowed some books. A couple of students went with Ms Kalunde to one of the offices in town that had Internet access and downloaded relevant information onto a flash drive. They then printed off their information and put it in the school library. Within a week they had collected enough information for their essays.

Their efforts proved to be well worthwhile. Their essay won the first prize because it had all the relevant information written in the most precise and interesting manner.

Points to ponder

1. Does your locality have facilities like the ones described in the Case Study above for students to acquire information? Does your school have arrangements for taking students to places such as the library?

2. How helpful do you think modern technological tools such as the Internet are for learning purposes? Do you use Internet resources yourself to acquire information? Would you encourage your students to use it to enhance their knowledge of school subjects?

Activity 1

As preparation for this activity read Resource 1a: Steps in essay writing and Resource 2: Forms/Kinds of essays.

• Show the students the video on travelling to a foreign country and have a class discussion on this topic (what to expect, how to prepare, how to interact with locals, cultural knowledge required, etc.).

• Announce that they are going to write an essay with the topic Travelling to a Foreign Country.

• Let the students brainstorm on the topic so that they can list the important points they are likely to include in the essay.

• Now assign one major point (e.g., what to expect, information about local culture, flight details) to each group and ask them to decide on the sub-points that will go into a paragraph on the main point selected. Encourage them to collect the relevant information from various sources such as library books, Internet articles and conversations with people. (This will have to be done outside class hours or as homework.)

• In the next class, begin with a review session on the various points, and allow the students, in their groups, to make their own decisions about which points to keep and which ones to reject. In their groups, ask them to arrange the points in the order in which they would want to include them in the essay.

• In their groups, they should also order the (sub-)points; that is, decide which point should come first, which should follow, and so on.

• Have the groups create a first draft of the essay. One group can do the introductory paragraph and another the concluding paragraph, and the rest of the groups can work on elaborating the points selected (see Resource 1b: Four major parts of an essay or report).

• Help the groups compile the paragraphs into one complete essay, assigning paragraph numbers. Photocopy the draft of the essay to give a copy to each group for editing, or display each paragraph on a screen for group editing. Alternatively, you can edit the first paragraph, showing them how to make corrections in grammar and style, and then let them edit the rest. Show them or give them a list of semantic markers (e.g., firstly, however, on the other hand, in other words, to sum up) that they can use in their essay for a smooth flow of the ideas. Once they have finalised their drafts, you can compile the edited versions into one final copy and ask one of the students to read it out. The whole process will be time-consuming, but your students will enjoy being given the responsibility of correcting and editing an essay. The exercise will also give them practical experience in learning the process of essay writing.

Activity 2

As preparation for this activity, show students the video on Biology Experiment: Osmosis. Have a class discussion after the video on how they would report on this experiment.

Read Resource 3: Science experiment: Osmosis. Ask the students to brainstorm on the parts of a scientific report. The discussion should generate expressions like observation, findings, materials required, equipment used, procedure and so on.

• Give the students Worksheet 1 (Resource 3) on the report on the experiment described in the video. Working in groups, their task will be to (i) put the paragraphs in the correct order and (ii) match the headings with the paragraphs. Have a feedback discussion on why it is necessary to use this kind of format, and not an essay format. Encourage them to express their own arguments about the differences in the styles of a narrative/essay and a scientific report.

• Now distribute Worksheet 2 (or project it on a screen) and have the students discuss the differences in style between the original report and this one. Your feedback should note that both styles can be used in this type of report, depending on why the report is being written. The sentence structure used in the original report is that of a directive, because the style is in the form of instructions, while the second (Worksheet 2) uses modal verbs because it demonstrates how the experiment can be conducted. In the next class, the students should be ready to write their own report. To take them through the steps in writing a scientific report, use the same strategies described above. For example, have the students write a report title “Air Is Essential for Burning.” First have them brainstorm on the materials required, the steps involved in conducting the experiment and what would be the findings. Remember the focus here is not on conducting the experiment, but on writing a report on it. Once the students have come to a consensus on the materials, procedure and findings, separate them into groups and have them write a report, using any one of the formats described in Resource 3. After the students have completed the report, ask them to edit and proofread their work before submitting it.

Activity 3

Note taking is a very useful academic exercise because it allows one to keep a concise written report of what one has heard or read. It helps one recall and review a lecture or any other discourse in a systematic manner.

Most of us take notes when we are reading or listening to something important, and we tend to develop our own methods of note taking. Research shows, however, that if we learn to take notes systematically, following a process, we will understand and retain more information for later use.

The process of note taking begins even before we actually listen or read. People can take notes faster, and with better understanding, if they simply spend a minute thinking about the topic they are going to hear or read before the actual note taking begins. The process ends with the reconstructing of the text or speech from the notes. The following activity aims to take the students through certain important steps of note taking.

• Choose a passage for note taking, keeping in mind the level of your students and their interest areas. (You can also play the audiotape of the sample passage in Resource 4: Natural lighting for energy conservation, or read the transcript aloud.)

• Before the students listen to or read the passage, ask them to think of two questions that they think the passage will answer. For example, before listening to the passage in Resource 4, we could ask questions like: (i) Will the passage define “energy conservation?” and (ii) Will it give us tips on using natural lighting in our homes? The important thing here is not whether they have asked “intelligent” questions, but that they have begun to think about the topic, thus preparing themselves to listen/read more efficiently.

• To help the students prepare to take notes, have a class discussion on semantic markers (practised in Unit 2), and on how they should train themselves to listen to these markers when taking notes because they help the listener/reader navigate or move easily through the passage. For example, the expression however signals that the speaker/writer is going to say something that contradicts what they said before; firstly, secondly, etc., help us list the points to give some order to the content.

• Also remind the students that using abbreviations, listing and numbering helps to speed up the note-taking process and will help them organise their notes systematically (see Resources 5a and 5b).

• Read out the passage and let the students take notes using the strategies described above.

• Put the students in groups and have them reconstruct the passage from their notes, finalising the details by comparing notes with each other.

• When they are ready, read out the passage once again and let them check the details and modify their summaries.

• Have a feedback session so the students can say if they found the techniques useful, and if their experience helped them remember important information better.

Summary

In this unit you learned how to assist your students in writing good essays and scientific reports, and taking notes. You also used investigation techniques to help your students collect information from various sources. These activities have given your students an opportunity to practise the processes involved in composing a variety of written texts.

Reflection

• How helpful was the case study?

• Can you think of a similar case study?

• Do you think your students will enjoy going through the preparatory steps involved in making a draft of a written composition for academic purposes?

Assessment

• What other kinds of academic writing do your students need to learn? Can you think of an activity to teach; for example, preparing a morning assembly speech?

• What difficulties do you anticipate while teaching writing skills? How important is a strong vocabulary for formal writing? Should we design activities to improve students’ formal vocabulary, or do they expand their vocabulary naturally?

Resource 1a

• Reading widely: For the proper preparation of essay writing, it is crucial to have read widely about the topic. This is the first essential step of good essay writing.

• Choosing a subject: The candidate should choose a subject with which he or she feels comfortable, knows something about, or has already thought about.

• Drawing up a plan: It is very important to prepare a mental plan after choosing the subject. Planning helps keep the essay writer on track and minimises the chances of digression or irrelevance.

• Being concise and to the point: There is an important caveat for the writer of an essay: the word limit. The writer should plan to cover everything he or she thinks is relevant, but with precision and conciseness.

• Learning to write a good topic sentence: The topic sentence defines the subject matter of the paragraph. All the sentences in a paragraph should support the topic sentence. The topic sentence can be at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph.

• Writing a good introduction and conclusion: The topic of the essay needs to be introduced in such a manner that it gives an impression that the writer has a clear understanding of the central point of the subject. Similarly, the conclusion leaves a lasting impression, and so it should summarise the important points well.

• Using language appropriately: An essay writer should use simple and straightforward language; that is, vocabulary and structures that present the ideas in a clear and interesting manner, without long-winded explanations in flowery language. Moreover, semantic markers such as however, although, on the other hand, for instance, etc., should be used to help the reader navigate easily through the essay.

• Division of the essay: The essay needs to be divided into paragraphs, with clear introductory and concluding paragraphs. Care should be taken that the paragraphs develop ideas logically, and with adequate illustrations, and that they avoid the repetition of ideas that appear elsewhere in the essay.

Resource 1b

• The title: The title states the focus or the subject you are writing about.

• The introductory part: This normally defines, describes or explains the key terms of the topic at hand.

• The body: This is where the discussion of the topic centres. It should be well organised into paragraphs, with each paragraph preferably containing one idea. If the idea is complex and requires elaboration, it should be subdivided logically into several paragraphs. Semantic markers like the ones listed above should be used to join paragraphs.

• The conclusion: The conclusion either summarises the main points of the essay or gives opinions and recommendations.

Resource 2

We know that essays normally address a major question on a particular topic. They may seek to explain, describe, define or give a point of view.

Often it is the question that the essay seeks to answer and how it addresses that question which differentiates forms or kinds of essays. The various kinds of essay include descriptive essays, cause and effect essays, comparison essays, argumentative essays and essays of definition.

Descriptive essays

These seek to answer the “what” questions. In a descriptive essay, the writer may start with something obvious like the physical appearance of an object or subject; then they may include inner or hidden features like attitude, values or temperaments. They may also make associations with the immediate environment of the object. Depending on the field/subject area, the writer may also include scientific or sociological explanations. The major objective of the descriptive essay is to use language to make the reader see, feel and understand an object, activity or event.

Cause and effect essays

These seek to answer the questions of what happened and why it happened. The writer of a cause and effect essay explains the link between the process and the result, giving the most reasonable and convincing explanation. He or she can also explain how action X leads to event Y (for example, how the process of boiling water causes it to turn into vapour).

Comparison/Contrast essays

These seek to explain how two things are similar or different. An essay of comparison shows how two things are similar, and an essay of contrast shows how two things are different. In this kind of essay the writer states and explains those features that are alike and those that are in contrast.

Argumentative essays

These seek to discuss issues by providing plausible opinions on a subject. The writer of the argumentative essay includes data/evidence to support his or her views on the subject. This means the writer has to consult reliable sources of information and become knowledgeable about different sides of the issue. He or she also needs to use persuasive language to convince readers that the writer’s views are the most plausible.

Essays of definition

This type of essay seeks to clarify a particular term, concept or idea. Essays of definition provide answers to various questions including what, how, why and when, so as to provide a complete understanding of the subject. The writer shares his or her knowledge on the subject in a clear and precise manner, and includes only important and relevant information.

Resource 3

This Resource contains a link to a video on a biology experiment, a sample report on the experiment and Worksheets 1 and 2 for students. Before beginning the activity, watch the video and go through the report and worksheets. They have been designed to actively engage your students in the process of writing a scientific report, so that rather than being told how to write a report, they experience the procedure themselves.

Report on a biology experiment: Osmosis

Investigation: What is osmosis?

Materials and equipment required: A raw potato, a boiled potato, two petri dishes, a knife, a peeler, table salt, water.

Procedure: Cut the boiled and raw potatoes into two equal halves. Remove the peel from the base of each half. Use the peeler to make a small hollow on the broader side of each potato half. Pour an equal amount of water in the two petri dishes. Stand the base of each potato half in the two petri dishes. Put ½ teaspoon of table salt inside the hollow of each potato half in the petri dish. Leave the two samples for two hours. After two hours, observe the two samples carefully.

Observations: The hollow of the raw potato is filled with water while that of the boiled potato contains no water.

Report: Osmosis is the process of movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration of water molecules to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

The process of osmosis can be observed by using a potato as a model of a cell membrane. The concentration of water molecules is higher outside the hollow of the potato half and the concentration of salt (solute) is higher inside the hollow of the potato half.

As a result, water molecules move from outside the potato into the hollow of the potato half through the raw (living) cells, which act as a selectively permeable membrane. Water accumulates inside the hollow. The boiled potato half has only dead cells, so no osmosis occurs.

Video

Resource file

See in the enclosed DVD a video recording of the activity:

• Scripts\Module4\Unit4\Activity2\Resource3\Video\Writing_a_Science_Report.mp4

A raw potato, a boiled potato, two petri dishes, a knife, a peeler, table salt, water

Investigation

Osmosis is the process of movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration of water molecules to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane. The process of osmosis can be observed by using a potato as a model of a cell membrane. The concentration of water molecules is higher outside the hollow of the potato half and the concentration of salt (solute) is higher inside the hollow of the potato half. As a result, water molecules move from outside the potato into the hollow of the potato half through the raw (living) cells, which act as a selectively permeable membrane. Water accumulates inside the hollow. The boiled potato half has only dead cells, so no osmosis occurs.

Materials and equipment required

What is osmosis?

Procedure

The hollow of the raw potato is filled with water while that of the boiled potato contains no water.

Observations

Cut the boiled and raw potatoes into two equal halves. Remove the peel from the base of each half. Use the peeler to make a small hollow on the broader side of each potato half. Pour an equal amount of water in the two petri dishes. Stand the base of each potato half in the two petri dishes. Put ½ teaspoon of table salt inside the hollow of each potato half in the petri dish. Leave the two samples for two hours. After two hours, observe the two samples carefully.

Report

Report on a biology experiment: Osmosis

Investigation: What is osmosis?

Materials and equipment required: A raw potato, a boiled potato, two petri dishes, a knife, a peeler, table salt, water

Procedure: Cut the boiled and raw potatoes into two equal halves. Remove the peel from the base of each half. Use the peeler to make a small hollow on the broader side of each potato half. Pour an equal amount of water in the two petri dishes. Stand the base of each potato half in the two petri dishes. Put ½ teaspoon of table salt in the hollow of each potato half in the petri dish. Leave the two samples for two hours. After two hours, observe the two samples carefully.

Observations: The hollow of the raw potato is filled with water while that of the boiled potato contains no water.

Report: From this experiment we can conclude that osmosis is the process of movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration of water molecules to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

The process of osmosis can be observed by using a potato as a model of a cell membrane. The concentration of water molecules is higher outside the hollow of the potato half and the concentration of salt (solute) is higher inside the hollow of the potato half.

As a result, water molecules move from outside the potato into the hollow through the raw (living) cells, which act as a selectively permeable membrane. Water accumulates inside the hollow. The boiled potato half has only dead cells, so no osmosis occurs.

Resource 4

Transcript

Today I’m going to briefly touch upon natural lighting for houses.

You are all aware of the negative effects of global warming, and one of the ways we can contribute to reducing the emission of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases into the atmosphere is by using less electricity. In this talk, I’m going to mention four ways in which we can use natural lighting more effectively in our homes.

Maximising our use of natural light will not only help us save on electricity bills, it will help eliminate germs and dust mites too. Allowing more light into our homes will therefore enable us to lead healthier and better lives. In other words, it has added advantages — it will reduce our energy use and expenses; and in addition, healthy living will ensure that our hospital bills come down too!

Here are four ways in which we can use natural lighting in our homes.

Firstly, paint the interior walls of your home in lighter (pale) shades. This ensures better reflection of light from the walls, and makes the room look brighter. You can also use mirrors to reflect natural light off the walls, especially in darker rooms.

A second option is to install large windows, especially in houses that do not allow a lot of light in. The windows should be taller rather than wider: this is another “trick” for ensuring more light enters the room.

Another healthy habit is to remember to keep windows and blinds open longer on bright, sunny days to admit as much light as possible. Even if you have air conditioners installed in the rooms, it is always advisable to keep windows and doors wide open for some time to prevent carbon dioxide from building up in the rooms.

There are many other ways we can save power by increasing the amount of natural light in our homes and workplaces, but today I’m going to end with just one last suggestion. In your homes, make sure that your work areas, such as desks and kitchen sinks, are situated close to sources of natural light. This is good for your health too, and will save a lot of power.

In short, I’ve given you four tips on energy conservation through the use of natural light. If everyone followed these simple measures in our homes, imagine the amount of collective savings we would make! Our duty, therefore, is also to make others aware of these simple steps. Spread the word — make your neighbours, family and friends more eco-friendly.

Audio

Resource file

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umbg7cOsAPo

See in the enclosed DVD an audio recording of the activity:

• Scripts\Module4\Unit4\Activity3\Resource4\Audio\Natural_Lighting.mp3

Resource 5a

When we are taking notes, especially from a lecture, we do not have the luxury of taking down every word — the speaker cannot wait while we write!

The most sensible approach is to use abbreviations and symbols where possible and to leave out words that do not contribute to the meaning.

For example

e.g.

Percentage

%

That is

i.e.

Because

∵
 

Versus

vs.

Therefore

∴

Compare

cf.

Greater than

˃

Note well

N.B.

Greater than or equal to

≥

In the same place (from text already quoted)

ibid

Lesser than

˂

In the work cited

op. cit.

Lesser than or equal to

≤

Post script

PS

Equal to

=

Carbon dioxide

CO₂

Not equal to

≠

For

4

And

&

To

2

At the rate of

@

From

frm

Proportional to

̴∼

Important

imp

Parallel to

     ||

Great

gr8

Negative

-ve

Air conditioned/er

AC

Positive

+ ve

Resource 5b

Note taking is an exercise in summarising the main points of a lecture or written text for future reference. It is not unusual to refer to notes quite some time after we first heard or read a text. It is natural, in such a case, to forget related matters such as the number of main points discussed, the sub-points of each point, the important statistics and so on. To minimise the burden of remembering all this information, we can use a system of listing through numbering and spacing. For illustration, here are the notes on the passage in Resource 4 above, showing the use of abbreviations and symbols where appropriate, as well as numbering and spacing:

Passage: Natural lighting for energy conservation

I. Intro: -ve effects of global warming

a. reduce CO₂ + other harmful gases

b. use less electricity

II. natural light^ng: advntges

a. saves elect. bills

b. removes germs, dust mites

c. healthy, better lives

d. reduces hosp. bills

III. 4 ways of using nat. light^ng

a. paint int. walls pale, light shades

i. reflects light

ii. rooms look bright

iii. use mirrors

b. install large windows (esp. in dark houses)

i. tall windows, not wide, 4 more light

c. keep blinds, windows open longer on bright days

i. lets out CO₂, even in AC rooms

ii. uses less elect., saves power

d. work areas (desks, sinks) – near sources of nat. light

IV. Summary:

a. 4 tips on energy consrv^tn

b. collective savings of community

c. inform family, friends, neighbours

Feedback

Question: Apart from scientific reports and experiments, what other forms of academic writing should I teach for other subject areas?

Answer: There are several kinds of academic writing that students use in other subject areas. Some of the ones you could use are: comparing and contrasting two kinds of terrains/vegetation/seasons (Geography), defining and illustrating geometrical shapes (Mathematics) or discussing the cause and effect of an event (Social Studies or History).